Global Precious Metal Recycling Market Research Report - Market Share Analysis, Industry Trends & Statistics, Growth Forecasts (2025 - 2033)
Description
Definition and Scope:
The precious metal recycling market refers to the systematic process of recovering rare and high-value metals such as gold (Au), silver (Ag), platinum (Pt), palladium (Pd), and rhodium (Rh) from used products, industrial waste, electronic devices, automotive catalysts, jewelry, and other end-of-life components. This process involves several stages, including collection, dismantling, refining, and purification, aimed at extracting precious metals in a reusable form. Unlike primary metal extraction from ores, which is energy-intensive and environmentally taxing, recycling offers a sustainable and economically viable alternative. It not only reduces reliance on mining but also mitigates environmental degradation, conserves limited resources, and ensures supply security for critical sectors such as electronics, automotive, and renewable energy.
In 2023, the global precious metal recycling market was estimated to be valued at approximately USD 17.87 billion. This estimation takes into account growing e-waste volumes, rising consumption of platinum group metals (PGMs), and the expansion of urban mining practices in both developed and emerging economies. From 2024 to 2033, the market is expected to grow at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of around 7.2%. The driving forces behind this expansion include heightened environmental regulations, increasing demand for sustainability across industries, and the rising value of precious metals due to supply volatility and geopolitical tensions. In addition, the proliferation of electronic devices and the push for circular economy models have accelerated investments in advanced recycling technologies. At the same time, strong governmental policies and corporate ESG commitments are further stimulating growth by encouraging metal recovery and reuse.
This report offers a comprehensive analysis of the global Precious Metal Recycling market, examining all key dimensions. It provides both a macro-level overview and micro-level market details, including market size, trends, competitive landscape, niche segments, growth drivers, and key challenges.
Report Framework and Key Highlights:
Market Dynamics: Identification of major market drivers, restraints, opportunities, and challenges.
Trend Analysis: Examination of ongoing and emerging trends impacting the market.
Competitive Landscape: Detailed profiles and market positioning of major players, including market share, operational status, product offerings, and strategic developments.
Strategic Analysis Tools: SWOT Analysis, Porter’s Five Forces Analysis, PEST Analysis, Value Chain Analysis
Market Segmentation: By type, application, region, and end-user industry.
Forecasting and Growth Projections: In-depth revenue forecasts and CAGR analysis through 2033.
This report equips readers with critical insights to navigate competitive dynamics and develop effective strategies. Whether assessing a new market entry or refining existing strategies, the report serves as a valuable tool for:
Industry players
Investors
Researchers
Consultants
Business strategists
And all stakeholders with an interest or investment in the Precious Metal Recycling market.
Global Precious Metal Recycling Market: Segmentation Analysis and Strategic Insights
This section of the report provides an in-depth segmentation analysis of the global Precious Metal Recycling market. The market is segmented based on region (country), manufacturer, product type, and application. Segmentation enables a more precise understanding of market dynamics and facilitates targeted strategies across product development, marketing, and sales.
By breaking the market into meaningful subsets, stakeholders can better tailor their offerings to the specific needs of each segment—enhancing competitiveness and improving return on investment.
Global Precious Metal Recycling Market: Market Segmentation Analysis
The research report includes specific segments by region (country), manufacturers, Type, and Application. Market segmentation creates subsets of a market based on product type, end-user or application, Geographic, and other factors. By understanding the market segments, the decision-maker can leverage this targeting in the product, sales, and marketing strategies. Market segments can power your product development cycles by informing how you create product offerings for different segments.
Key Companies Profiled
Umicore
PX Group
Materion
Sims Recycling Solutions
Johnson Matthey
Abington Reldan Metals
Tanaka
Dowa Holdings
Heraeus
BASF SE
Sino-Platinum Metals
Asahi Holdings
Chiyoda
BR Metals Pte Ltd
EnviroLeach Technologies Inc.
Snam S.p.A.
Boliden AB
JX Advanced Metals Group
Matsuda Sangyo Co., Ltd.
MIREC Edelmetalgesellschaft mbH
C. Hafner GmbH + Co. KG
Elemetal, LLC.
Mastermelt
Market Segmentation by Type
Silver (Ag)
Gold (Au)
Platinum Group Metals
Market Segmentation by Application
Jewelry
Catalyst
Electronics
Battery
Others
Geographic Segmentation
North America: United States, Canada, Mexico
Europe: Germany, France, Italy, U.K., Spain, Sweden, Denmark, Netherlands, Switzerland, Belgium, Russia.
Asia-Pacific: China, Japan, South Korea, India, Australia, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand
South America: Brazil, Argentina, Colombia.
Middle East and Africa (MEA): Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, Egypt, Nigeria, South Africa, Rest of MEA
Report Framework and Chapter Summary
Chapter 1: Report Scope and Market Definition
This chapter outlines the statistical boundaries and scope of the report. It defines the segmentation standards used throughout the study, including criteria for dividing the market by region, product type, application, and other relevant dimensions. It establishes the foundational definitions and classifications that guide the rest of the analysis.
Chapter 2: Executive Summary
This chapter presents a concise summary of the market’s current status and future outlook across different segments—by geography, product type, and application. It includes key metrics such as market size, growth trends, and development potential for each segment. The chapter offers a high-level overview of the Precious Metal Recycling Market, highlighting its evolution over the short, medium, and long term.
Chapter 3: Market Dynamics and Policy Environment
This chapter explores the latest developments in the market, identifying key growth drivers, restraints, challenges, and risks faced by industry participants. It also includes an analysis of the policy and regulatory landscape affecting the market, providing insight into how external factors may shape future performance.
Chapter 4: Competitive Landscape
This chapter provides a detailed assessment of the market's competitive environment. It covers market share, production capacity, output, pricing trends, and strategic developments such as mergers, acquisitions, and expansion plans of leading players. This analysis offers a comprehensive view of the positioning and performance of top competitors.
Chapters 5–10: Regional Market Analysis
These chapters offer in-depth, quantitative evaluations of market size and growth potential across major regions and countries. Each chapter assesses regional consumption patterns, market dynamics, development prospects, and available capacity. The analysis helps readers understand geographical differences and opportunities in global markets.
Chapter 11: Market Segmentation by Product Type
This chapter examines the market based on product type, analyzing the size, growth trends, and potential of each segment. It helps stakeholders identify underexplored or high-potential product categories—often referred to as “blue ocean” opportunities.
Chapter 12: Market Segmentation by Application
This chapter analyzes the market based on application fields, providing insights into the scale and future development of each application segment. It supports readers in identifying high-growth areas across downstream markets.
Chapter 13: Company Profiles
This chapter presents comprehensive profiles of leading companies operating in the market. For each company, it details sales revenue, volume, pricing, gross profit margin, market share, product offerings, and recent strategic developments. This section offers valuable insight into corporate performance and strategy.
Chapter 14: Industry Chain and Value Chain Analysis
This chapter explores the full industry chain, from upstream raw material suppliers to downstream application sectors. It includes a value chain analysis that highlights the interconnections and dependencies across various parts of the ecosystem.
Chapter 15: Key Findings and Conclusions
The final chapter summarizes the main takeaways from the report, presenting the core conclusions, strategic recommendations, and implications for stakeholders. It encapsulates the insights drawn from all previous chapters.
The precious metal recycling market refers to the systematic process of recovering rare and high-value metals such as gold (Au), silver (Ag), platinum (Pt), palladium (Pd), and rhodium (Rh) from used products, industrial waste, electronic devices, automotive catalysts, jewelry, and other end-of-life components. This process involves several stages, including collection, dismantling, refining, and purification, aimed at extracting precious metals in a reusable form. Unlike primary metal extraction from ores, which is energy-intensive and environmentally taxing, recycling offers a sustainable and economically viable alternative. It not only reduces reliance on mining but also mitigates environmental degradation, conserves limited resources, and ensures supply security for critical sectors such as electronics, automotive, and renewable energy.
In 2023, the global precious metal recycling market was estimated to be valued at approximately USD 17.87 billion. This estimation takes into account growing e-waste volumes, rising consumption of platinum group metals (PGMs), and the expansion of urban mining practices in both developed and emerging economies. From 2024 to 2033, the market is expected to grow at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of around 7.2%. The driving forces behind this expansion include heightened environmental regulations, increasing demand for sustainability across industries, and the rising value of precious metals due to supply volatility and geopolitical tensions. In addition, the proliferation of electronic devices and the push for circular economy models have accelerated investments in advanced recycling technologies. At the same time, strong governmental policies and corporate ESG commitments are further stimulating growth by encouraging metal recovery and reuse.
This report offers a comprehensive analysis of the global Precious Metal Recycling market, examining all key dimensions. It provides both a macro-level overview and micro-level market details, including market size, trends, competitive landscape, niche segments, growth drivers, and key challenges.
Report Framework and Key Highlights:
Market Dynamics: Identification of major market drivers, restraints, opportunities, and challenges.
Trend Analysis: Examination of ongoing and emerging trends impacting the market.
Competitive Landscape: Detailed profiles and market positioning of major players, including market share, operational status, product offerings, and strategic developments.
Strategic Analysis Tools: SWOT Analysis, Porter’s Five Forces Analysis, PEST Analysis, Value Chain Analysis
Market Segmentation: By type, application, region, and end-user industry.
Forecasting and Growth Projections: In-depth revenue forecasts and CAGR analysis through 2033.
This report equips readers with critical insights to navigate competitive dynamics and develop effective strategies. Whether assessing a new market entry or refining existing strategies, the report serves as a valuable tool for:
Industry players
Investors
Researchers
Consultants
Business strategists
And all stakeholders with an interest or investment in the Precious Metal Recycling market.
Global Precious Metal Recycling Market: Segmentation Analysis and Strategic Insights
This section of the report provides an in-depth segmentation analysis of the global Precious Metal Recycling market. The market is segmented based on region (country), manufacturer, product type, and application. Segmentation enables a more precise understanding of market dynamics and facilitates targeted strategies across product development, marketing, and sales.
By breaking the market into meaningful subsets, stakeholders can better tailor their offerings to the specific needs of each segment—enhancing competitiveness and improving return on investment.
Global Precious Metal Recycling Market: Market Segmentation Analysis
The research report includes specific segments by region (country), manufacturers, Type, and Application. Market segmentation creates subsets of a market based on product type, end-user or application, Geographic, and other factors. By understanding the market segments, the decision-maker can leverage this targeting in the product, sales, and marketing strategies. Market segments can power your product development cycles by informing how you create product offerings for different segments.
Key Companies Profiled
Umicore
PX Group
Materion
Sims Recycling Solutions
Johnson Matthey
Abington Reldan Metals
Tanaka
Dowa Holdings
Heraeus
BASF SE
Sino-Platinum Metals
Asahi Holdings
Chiyoda
BR Metals Pte Ltd
EnviroLeach Technologies Inc.
Snam S.p.A.
Boliden AB
JX Advanced Metals Group
Matsuda Sangyo Co., Ltd.
MIREC Edelmetalgesellschaft mbH
C. Hafner GmbH + Co. KG
Elemetal, LLC.
Mastermelt
Market Segmentation by Type
Silver (Ag)
Gold (Au)
Platinum Group Metals
Market Segmentation by Application
Jewelry
Catalyst
Electronics
Battery
Others
Geographic Segmentation
North America: United States, Canada, Mexico
Europe: Germany, France, Italy, U.K., Spain, Sweden, Denmark, Netherlands, Switzerland, Belgium, Russia.
Asia-Pacific: China, Japan, South Korea, India, Australia, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand
South America: Brazil, Argentina, Colombia.
Middle East and Africa (MEA): Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, Egypt, Nigeria, South Africa, Rest of MEA
Report Framework and Chapter Summary
Chapter 1: Report Scope and Market Definition
This chapter outlines the statistical boundaries and scope of the report. It defines the segmentation standards used throughout the study, including criteria for dividing the market by region, product type, application, and other relevant dimensions. It establishes the foundational definitions and classifications that guide the rest of the analysis.
Chapter 2: Executive Summary
This chapter presents a concise summary of the market’s current status and future outlook across different segments—by geography, product type, and application. It includes key metrics such as market size, growth trends, and development potential for each segment. The chapter offers a high-level overview of the Precious Metal Recycling Market, highlighting its evolution over the short, medium, and long term.
Chapter 3: Market Dynamics and Policy Environment
This chapter explores the latest developments in the market, identifying key growth drivers, restraints, challenges, and risks faced by industry participants. It also includes an analysis of the policy and regulatory landscape affecting the market, providing insight into how external factors may shape future performance.
Chapter 4: Competitive Landscape
This chapter provides a detailed assessment of the market's competitive environment. It covers market share, production capacity, output, pricing trends, and strategic developments such as mergers, acquisitions, and expansion plans of leading players. This analysis offers a comprehensive view of the positioning and performance of top competitors.
Chapters 5–10: Regional Market Analysis
These chapters offer in-depth, quantitative evaluations of market size and growth potential across major regions and countries. Each chapter assesses regional consumption patterns, market dynamics, development prospects, and available capacity. The analysis helps readers understand geographical differences and opportunities in global markets.
Chapter 11: Market Segmentation by Product Type
This chapter examines the market based on product type, analyzing the size, growth trends, and potential of each segment. It helps stakeholders identify underexplored or high-potential product categories—often referred to as “blue ocean” opportunities.
Chapter 12: Market Segmentation by Application
This chapter analyzes the market based on application fields, providing insights into the scale and future development of each application segment. It supports readers in identifying high-growth areas across downstream markets.
Chapter 13: Company Profiles
This chapter presents comprehensive profiles of leading companies operating in the market. For each company, it details sales revenue, volume, pricing, gross profit margin, market share, product offerings, and recent strategic developments. This section offers valuable insight into corporate performance and strategy.
Chapter 14: Industry Chain and Value Chain Analysis
This chapter explores the full industry chain, from upstream raw material suppliers to downstream application sectors. It includes a value chain analysis that highlights the interconnections and dependencies across various parts of the ecosystem.
Chapter 15: Key Findings and Conclusions
The final chapter summarizes the main takeaways from the report, presenting the core conclusions, strategic recommendations, and implications for stakeholders. It encapsulates the insights drawn from all previous chapters.
Table of Contents
232 Pages
- 1 Introduction to Research & Analysis Reports
- 1.1 Oxygen Market Definition
- 1.2 Oxygen Market Segments
- 1.2.1 Segment by Type
- 1.2.2 Segment by Application
- 2 Executive Summary
- 2.1 Global Oxygen Market Size
- 2.2 Market Segmentation – by Type
- 2.3 Market Segmentation – by Application
- 2.4 Market Segmentation – by Geography
- 3 Key Market Trends, Opportunity, Drivers and Restraints
- 3.1 Key Takeway
- 3.2 Market Opportunities & Trends
- 3.3 Market Drivers
- 3.4 Market Restraints
- 3.5 Market Major Factor Assessment
- 4 Global Oxygen Market Competitive Landscape
- 4.1 Global Oxygen Sales by Manufacturers (2020-2025)
- 4.2 Global Oxygen Revenue Market Share by Manufacturers (2020-2025)
- 4.3 Oxygen Market Share by Company Type (Tier 1, Tier 2, and Tier 3)
- 4.4 New Entrant and Capacity Expansion Plans
- 4.5 Mergers & Acquisitions
- 5 Global Oxygen Market by Region
- 5.1 Global Oxygen Market Size by Region
- 5.1.1 Global Oxygen Market Size by Region
- 5.1.2 Global Oxygen Market Size Market Share by Region
- 5.2 Global Oxygen Sales by Region
- 5.2.1 Global Oxygen Sales by Region
- 5.2.2 Global Oxygen Sales Market Share by Region
- 6 North America Market Overview
- 6.1 North America Oxygen Market Size by Country
- 6.1.1 USA Market Overview
- 6.1.2 Canada Market Overview
- 6.1.3 Mexico Market Overview
- 6.2 North America Oxygen Market Size by Type
- 6.3 North America Oxygen Market Size by Application
- 6.4 Top Players in North America Oxygen Market
- 7 Europe Market Overview
- 7.1 Europe Oxygen Market Size by Country
- 7.1.1 Germany Market Overview
- 7.1.2 France Market Overview
- 7.1.3 U.K. Market Overview
- 7.1.4 Italy Market Overview
- 7.1.5 Spain Market Overview
- 7.1.6 Sweden Market Overview
- 7.1.7 Denmark Market Overview
- 7.1.8 Netherlands Market Overview
- 7.1.9 Switzerland Market Overview
- 7.1.10 Belgium Market Overview
- 7.1.11 Russia Market Overview
- 7.2 Europe Oxygen Market Size by Type
- 7.3 Europe Oxygen Market Size by Application
- 7.4 Top Players in Europe Oxygen Market
- 8 Asia-Pacific Market Overview
- 8.1 Asia-Pacific Oxygen Market Size by Country
- 8.1.1 China Market Overview
- 8.1.2 Japan Market Overview
- 8.1.3 South Korea Market Overview
- 8.1.4 India Market Overview
- 8.1.5 Australia Market Overview
- 8.1.6 Indonesia Market Overview
- 8.1.7 Malaysia Market Overview
- 8.1.8 Philippines Market Overview
- 8.1.9 Singapore Market Overview
- 8.1.10 Thailand Market Overview
- 8.1.11 Rest of APAC Market Overview
- 8.2 Asia-Pacific Oxygen Market Size by Type
- 8.3 Asia-Pacific Oxygen Market Size by Application
- 8.4 Top Players in Asia-Pacific Oxygen Market
- 9 South America Market Overview
- 9.1 South America Oxygen Market Size by Country
- 9.1.1 Brazil Market Overview
- 9.1.2 Argentina Market Overview
- 9.1.3 Columbia Market Overview
- 9.2 South America Oxygen Market Size by Type
- 9.3 South America Oxygen Market Size by Application
- 9.4 Top Players in South America Oxygen Market
- 10 Middle East and Africa Market Overview
- 10.1 Middle East and Africa Oxygen Market Size by Country
- 10.1.1 Saudi Arabia Market Overview
- 10.1.2 UAE Market Overview
- 10.1.3 Egypt Market Overview
- 10.1.4 Nigeria Market Overview
- 10.1.5 South Africa Market Overview
- 10.2 Middle East and Africa Oxygen Market Size by Type
- 10.3 Middle East and Africa Oxygen Market Size by Application
- 10.4 Top Players in Middle East and Africa Oxygen Market
- 11 Oxygen Market Segmentation by Type
- 11.1 Evaluation Matrix of Segment Market Development Potential (Type)
- 11.2 Global Oxygen Sales Market Share by Type (2020-2033)
- 11.3 Global Oxygen Market Size Market Share by Type (2020-2033)
- 11.4 Global Oxygen Price by Type (2020-2033)
- 12 Oxygen Market Segmentation by Application
- 12.1 Evaluation Matrix of Segment Market Development Potential (Application)
- 12.2 Global Oxygen Market Sales by Application (2020-2033)
- 12.3 Global Oxygen Market Size (M USD) by Application (2020-2033)
- 12.4 Global Oxygen Sales Growth Rate by Application (2020-2033)
- 13 Company Profiles
- 13.1 Linde Plc
- 13.1.1 Linde Plc Company Overview
- 13.1.2 Linde Plc Business Overview
- 13.1.3 Linde Plc Oxygen Major Product Offerings
- 13.1.4 Linde Plc Oxygen Sales and Revenue fromOxygen (2020-2025)
- 13.1.5 Key News
- 13.2 Air Liquide
- 13.2.1 Air Liquide Company Overview
- 13.2.2 Air Liquide Business Overview
- 13.2.3 Air Liquide Oxygen Major Product Offerings
- 13.2.4 Air Liquide Oxygen Sales and Revenue fromOxygen (2020-2025)
- 13.2.5 Key News
- 13.3 Air Products and Chemicals
- 13.3.1 Air Products and Chemicals Company Overview
- 13.3.2 Air Products and Chemicals Business Overview
- 13.3.3 Air Products and Chemicals Oxygen Major Product Offerings
- 13.3.4 Air Products and Chemicals Oxygen Sales and Revenue fromOxygen (2020-2025)
- 13.3.5 Key News
- 13.4 Taiyo Nippon Sanso
- 13.4.1 Taiyo Nippon Sanso Company Overview
- 13.4.2 Taiyo Nippon Sanso Business Overview
- 13.4.3 Taiyo Nippon Sanso Oxygen Major Product Offerings
- 13.4.4 Taiyo Nippon Sanso Oxygen Sales and Revenue fromOxygen (2020-2025)
- 13.4.5 Key News
- 13.5 Air Water
- 13.5.1 Air Water Company Overview
- 13.5.2 Air Water Business Overview
- 13.5.3 Air Water Oxygen Major Product Offerings
- 13.5.4 Air Water Oxygen Sales and Revenue fromOxygen (2020-2025)
- 13.5.5 Key News
- 13.6 Yingde Gases Group
- 13.6.1 Yingde Gases Group Company Overview
- 13.6.2 Yingde Gases Group Business Overview
- 13.6.3 Yingde Gases Group Oxygen Major Product Offerings
- 13.6.4 Yingde Gases Group Oxygen Sales and Revenue fromOxygen (2020-2025)
- 13.6.5 Key News
- 13.7 Messer North America Inc.
- 13.7.1 Messer North America Inc. Company Overview
- 13.7.2 Messer North America Inc. Business Overview
- 13.7.3 Messer North America Inc. Oxygen Major Product Offerings
- 13.7.4 Messer North America Inc. Oxygen Sales and Revenue fromOxygen (2020-2025)
- 13.7.5 Key News
- 13.8 Airgas
- 13.8.1 Airgas Company Overview
- 13.8.2 Airgas Business Overview
- 13.8.3 Airgas Oxygen Major Product Offerings
- 13.8.4 Airgas Oxygen Sales and Revenue fromOxygen (2020-2025)
- 13.8.5 Key News
- 13.9 Matheson Tri-Gas
- 13.9.1 Matheson Tri-Gas Company Overview
- 13.9.2 Matheson Tri-Gas Business Overview
- 13.9.3 Matheson Tri-Gas Oxygen Major Product Offerings
- 13.9.4 Matheson Tri-Gas Oxygen Sales and Revenue fromOxygen (2020-2025)
- 13.9.5 Key News
- 13.10 HANGZHOU HANGYANG
- 13.10.1 HANGZHOU HANGYANG Company Overview
- 13.10.2 HANGZHOU HANGYANG Business Overview
- 13.10.3 HANGZHOU HANGYANG Oxygen Major Product Offerings
- 13.10.4 HANGZHOU HANGYANG Oxygen Sales and Revenue fromOxygen (2020-2025)
- 13.10.5 Key News
- 13.11 SCGC
- 13.11.1 SCGC Company Overview
- 13.11.2 SCGC Business Overview
- 13.11.3 SCGC Oxygen Major Product Offerings
- 13.11.4 SCGC Oxygen Sales and Revenue fromOxygen (2020-2025)
- 13.11.5 Key News
- 13.12 Baosteel Gases
- 13.12.1 Baosteel Gases Company Overview
- 13.12.2 Baosteel Gases Business Overview
- 13.12.3 Baosteel Gases Oxygen Major Product Offerings
- 13.12.4 Baosteel Gases Oxygen Sales and Revenue fromOxygen (2020-2025)
- 13.12.5 Key News
- 13.13 Foshan Huate
- 13.13.1 Foshan Huate Company Overview
- 13.13.2 Foshan Huate Business Overview
- 13.13.3 Foshan Huate Oxygen Major Product Offerings
- 13.13.4 Foshan Huate Oxygen Sales and Revenue fromOxygen (2020-2025)
- 13.13.5 Key News
- 14 Key Market Trends, Opportunity, Drivers and Restraints
- 14.1 Key Takeway
- 14.2 Market Opportunities & Trends
- 14.3 Market Drivers
- 14.4 Market Restraints
- 14.5 Market Major Factor Assessment
- 14.6 Porter's Five Forces Analysis of Oxygen Market
- 14.7 PEST Analysis of Oxygen Market
- 15 Analysis of the Oxygen Industry Chain
- 15.1 Overview of the Industry Chain
- 15.2 Upstream Segment Analysis
- 15.3 Midstream Segment Analysis
- 15.3.1 Manufacturing, Processing or Conversion Process Analysis
- 15.3.2 Key Technology Analysis
- 15.4 Downstream Segment Analysis
- 15.4.1 Downstream Customer List and Contact Details
- 15.4.2 Customer Concerns or Preference Analysis
- 16 Conclusion
- 17 Appendix
- 17.1 Methodology
- 17.2 Research Process and Data Source
- 17.3 Disclaimer
- 17.4 Note
- 17.5 Examples of Clients
- 17.6 Disclaimer
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