How Drugs Are Developed: 3rd Edition
Informa Healthcare
September 1, 2007 236 Pages - SKU: IFHC1693929
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Overview The principles of R&D have not changed markedly in the intervening years, but like any industry, Pharma has been forced to take stock of the manner in which it operates. Analysis of financial profits and losses consistently shows that increasingly greater investment is required for reduced number of marketed products.
Despite the introduction of new technologies aimed at faster and more innovative drug discovery, the numbers of new introductions with novel mechanisms of action has remained constant. And threats to public safety, whilst rare, demand ever more stringent regulatory procedures.
Description The industry continues to consolidate through merger and acquisition. Although these activities in themselves rarely provide long-term growth, they provide an opportunity to divest activities no longer considered essential for in-house ownership. From this has sprung the need for contract organisations. Specialist companies with expertise upon particular phases of pharmaceutical R&D which range from supply of drug targets and chemical building blocks, through non-clinical development and on to clinical evaluation and regulatory affairs.
Innovation in the industry is not at a standstill, it has changed direction. Where once, small molecule research provided the mainstay, biological drugs are now making their presence felt. While the range of genomic sciences waits to make its impact, biologicals are providing the current focus for novel discovery. This move doesn't come without a price. Biologicals do not behave like small molecules; they have large molecular weights and are most usually species specific. The rules for their development are different and often little understood; witness the tragedy which occurred at Northwick Park following the administration of an immune activator to healthy volunteers in March 2006.
The 2007 update to How Drugs are Developed responds to these changes. Sections which were previously focussed upon small molecules have been expanded where necessary. There are two new chapters outlined below: - project management
- the fundamentals of managing multidisciplinary teams and the ways in which the role is changing to encompass external as well as internal interfaces.
- expansion of translational research
- ways in which laboratory concepts can be converted into medical advances
The updated report will provides you with:- An introduction to the drug discovery and development process
- Definitions of all the key terms
- Detailed explanations of all technologies involved
- An overview of the legislation and regulation governing drug discovery and development
- Clarification of the roles of individuals, departments and business functions within R&D
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- CHAPTER 1 DRUG TARGETS AND TARGET HUNTING
- 1.1 Target hunting
- 1.1.1 Proteins as drug targets
- 1.1.2 Enzymes and the significance of protein folding
- 1.1.3 Protein synthesis
- 1.1.4 Further processing of proteins
- 1.2 The range of drug targets
- 1.2.1 Bioinformatics
- 1.2.2 Systems biology
- 1.2.3 Metabonomics
- 1.3 The range of drugs
- 1.3.1 Enzyme inhibition
- 1.3.2 7-transmembrane receptors (7TMs)
- CHAPTER 2 LEAD GENERATION
- 2.1 Introduction
- 2.2 Small molecule lead generation
- 2.2.1 Units
- 2.2.2 Lead generation strategies
- 2.2.3 Lipinski’s rule of 5
- molecular size
- fatty/aqueous considerations
- hydrogen bonding
- 2.2.4 Fragment-based lead generation
- 2.2.5 Chemi-informatic filters
- 2.3 Practical lead generation
- 2.3.1 High throughput screening (HTS)
- 2.3.2 Receptor binding assays
- 2.4 Combinatorial chemistry
- 2.5 Parallel synthesis
- 2.6 Structure/activity relationships (SARs)
- 2.7 SAR, quantified structure/activity relationships and CADD
- 2.8 Secondary screening
- 2.9 Biotechnology and lead generation
- 2.9.1 Mimicry of the natural ligand
- 2.9.2 Recombinant technology
- 2.9.3 Recombinant Factor VIII
- 2.9.4 Recombinant erythropoietin
- 2.9.5 Monoclonal antibodies
- 2.9.6 Monoclonal antibodies and immunogenicity
- 2.9.7 Mechanism of action
- 2.9.8 Advantages and disadvantages of biological products versus small molecules
- CHAPTER 3 LEAD OPTIMISATION
- 3.1 Early safety screening
- 3.1.1 Genetic toxicity
- 3.1.2 e-screens for genetic toxicity
- 3.1.3 General toxicity screening
- 3.1.4 Screening for genetic toxicity - the Ames test
- 3.1.5 Mouse lymphoma assay (MLA)
- 3.1.6 Clastogenicity
- 3.2 HTS bioavailability and pharmacokinetics
- 3.2.1 Models of absorption
- 3.2.2 Metabolism
- 3.2.3 Optimisation of biologicals
- 3.3 Summary
- CHAPTER 4 PREPARING FOR DEVELOPMENT
- 4.1 Patent filing
- 4.1.1 Competitor surveillance
- 4.2 Optimisation for potency
- 4.3 In vivo activity
- 4.4 Therapeutic ratio and a consistent drug delivery
- 4.5 Efficacy, toxicity and dose consistency - the basis of preclinical research
- 4.6 In search of dosing consistency
- 4.6.1 The significance of low bioavailability
- 4.6.2 Optimisation of bioavailability
- aqueous solubility
- particle crystallinity and size
- polymorphism
- 4.6.3 Stability
- 4.6.4 Salt formation
- 4.6.5 Solution stability
- 4.7 Drug disposition and bioavailability
- 4.7.1 Absorption and distribution
- 4.7.1.1 Metabolism and excretion
- a metabolite may be more active than the parent
- enzyme inhibition, induction and polymorphism
- Phase-1 and Phase-2 metabolism
- 4.8 Pharmacokinetics (primer)
- 4.8.1 Cassette dosing
- 4.8.2 Absolute bioavailability
- 4.9 Drug safety
- 4.9.1 Toxicogenomics
- 4.9.2 Safety pharmacology
- 4.9.2.1 Receptor and enzyme screening
- 4.9.2.2 Cardiovascular toxicity
- HERG assay
- in vivo cardiovascular screening
- 4.9.2.3 Respiratory system
- 4.9.2.4 Central nervous system (CNS) screening
- 4.10 Good laboratory practice
- 4.11 Summary statements
- 4.12 Project progression criteria
- 4.12.1 Target proposal
- 4.12.2 Nomination of a lead
- 4.12.3 Nomination of a development candidate
- 4.12.3.1 Biology
- 4.12.3.2 Patent
- 4.12.3.3 Chemistry
- 4.12.3.4 Pharmaceutics
- 4.12.3.5 Drug disposition
- 4.12.3.6 Safety
- 4.13 Preparing a biological candidate for development
- 4.13.1 API preparation
- 4.13.2 Biological drug quality and cell banking
- 4.13.3 Bioreactors
- 4.13.4 Clinical formulation
- 4.13.5 Biologic progression criteria
- 4.14 The case for development
- CHAPTER 5 PRECLINICAL RESEARCH
- 5.1 Introduction
- 5.2 Drug substance supplies (kilogram-scale chemistry and bioprocessors)
- 5.2.1 Patents
- 5.2.2 Environment
- 5.2.3 Health and safety
- 5.2.4 Raw material sourcing and pricing
- 5.2.5 Scalability
- 5.2.6 Optimisation
- 5.2.7 Liaison with the pharmaceutical department
- 5.3 Good manufacturing practice (GMP)
- 5.4 Synthetic route optimisation
- 5.4.1 The early synthetic route for fluoxetine
- 5.4.2 The final (or manufacturing) route for fluoxetine
- 5.4.3 Analytical sciences and impurities
- 5.4.3.1 The importance of finalising the route to drug substance early
- 5.4.4 Manufacture of biological drugs
- 5.4.5 API specification
- 5.4.6 Stability
- 5.5 Investigational medicinal product (IMP) development
- 5.5.1 The oral dosage form
- direct compression
- dry granulation
- wet granulation
- tablet coating
- 5.5.2 Intravenous dosage form
- 5.5.3 Specifications and stability
- 5.6 Non-clinical safety assessment
- 5.6.1 General toxicology
- 5.6.2 The regulatory requirements for FIM
- toxicokinetics
- safety study outcomes
- late-stage safety development programme
- 5.6.3 Reproductive toxicology
- embryo-foetal development (EFD) testing (segment II)
- fertility testing (segment I)
- peri and postnatal toxicity trials (segment III)
- 5.6.4 Special considerations for biologicals
- pharmacokinetics
- immunotoxicity
- 5.6.5 Genetic toxicity and carcinogenicity
- the Ames test for regulatory submission
- chromosomal aberration test
- in vivo clastogenicity testing
- carcinogenicity testing
- 5.6.6 High-risk medicinal products
- 5.7 Drug disposition
- 5.7.1 Pharmacokinetics
- bioavailability
- distribution
- elimination and clearance
- therapeutic window
- PK/PD modelling
- 5.7.2 ADME
- multi-resistance drug protein (MDR)
- blood-brain barrier
- plasma protein binding
- distribution
- mass balance study
- tissue distribution studies
- bile elimination studies
- drug disposition as the linchpin of drug development
- CHAPTER 6 TRANSLATIONAL RESEARCH
- 6.1 Introduction
- 6.1.1 Proof of concept studies
- 6.1.2 Biomarkers
- 6.1.3 Translational research in oncology
- 6.1.4 Translational research and safety
- 6.1.4.1 The heart and the liver
- 6.1.4.2 Translational research and metabolism
- CHAPTER 7 PROJECT MANAGEMENT
- 7.1 Introduction
- 7.1.1 The project team
- 7.1.2 The kick-off meeting
- 7.1.3 The project plan
- 7.1.4 Maintaining progress
- 7.2 The project team as the company experts
- 7.3 Project teams as mediators of innovation
- 7.4 Project teams and outsourcing
- 7.5 Project managers
- CHAPTER 8 REGULATORY SUBMISSIONS
- 8.1 Introduction - the regulatory bodies
- 8.1.1 The International Conference on Harmonisation of Technical Requirements for Registration of Pharmaceuticals for Human Use (ICH)
- 8.1.2 The major regulatory bodies of the world
- European Agency for the Evaluation of Medicinal Products (EMEA)
- US Food and Drug Administration (FDA)
- the Japanese Ministry for Health, Labour and Welfare (MHLW)
- 8.2 Regulatory submissions
- 8.2.1 Application to conduct a clinical trial
- clinical trial application in the US (IND) and Europe (CTA)
- 8.2.2 Changes to the European system for application to conduct clinical trials
- 8.2.4 The investigator’s brochure (IB)
- 8.3 Regulatory strategy
- 8.3.1 Quality
- 8.3.2 Preclinical safety
- 8.3.3 Linking it all together
- 8.4 Application to market a new drug
- 8.4.1 The European licensing system
- the centralised procedure
- the mutual recognition procedure
- national submissions
- 8.4.2 The common technical document
- 8.4.3 Electronic CTD submissions (e-CTD)
- 8.4.4 Marketing applications in the US
- 8.4.5 Special examples of drug approval processes
- accelerated approval
- orphan drug status
- CHAPTER 9 CLINICAL EVALUATION
- 9.1 Introduction
- 9.2 Definitions
- 9.3 Clinical trial regulation
- 9.3.1 Ethics committee approval
- 9.3.2 The clinical team
- 9.3.3 Required documentation
- 9.4 The categories of clinical trials
- 9.4.1 Characteristics of Phase I trials
- ADME parameters
- blood biochemistry
- dose escalation, single and multiple dose studies
- 9.4.2 Clinical pharmacokinetics
- Phase I PK monitoring
- human microdosing
- PK trials for specific purposes
- the elderly
- paediatrics
- interaction with food
- bioequivalence trials
- specific population groups
- 9.5 Phase II studies
- 9.6 Phase II/III Go/NoGo
- reasons for a project NoGo before Phase III
- 9.7 Phase III
- 9.7.1 Characteristics of Phase III trials
- 9.7.2 Example - rimonabant in Phase III
- 9.8 Pharmacoeconomics
- 9.8.1 Trials with pharmacoeconomic endpoints
- 9.8.2 Assessing technological advances
- 9.8.3 The basis of NICE analyses
- 9.9 Concluding summary
- CHAPTER 10 POSTMARKETING SURVEILLANCE (PMS)
- 10.1 Introduction
- 10.2 The need for PMS
- 10.3 Pharmacovigilance
- 10.3.1 Drug safety
- 10.3.2 Risk/benefit assessment
- evaluating risk
- evaluating benefit
- 10.4 The mechanics of pharmacovigilance
- 10.4.1 PSURs
- 10.4.2 Expedited reports
- 10.5 Risk management
- 10.6 Pharmacovigilance specification
- 10.6.1 Developmental data
- 10.6.2 Class effects
- 10.6.3 Drug interactions
- 10.6.4 Less obvious contingencies
- 10.7 The risk management plan
- 10.7.1 Risk management in Europe
- 10.7.2 The withdrawal of Vioxx
- 10.7.3 Rimonabant
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